To cause genomic instability particularly at chromosome loci that are intrinsically

To cause genomic instability particularly at chromosome loci that are intrinsically difficult to replicate because of the complexity of secondary structures or difficulty in unwinding during DNA replication [3,18,19]. The term “chromosomal fragile sites” is designated to describe the recurrent loci that preferentially exhibit chromatid gaps and breaks on metaphase chromosomes under partial inhibition of DNA synthesis [20]. The list of such loci is growing and now includes IQ 1 classical “chromosomal fragile sites” [20], telomeres [21], and repetitive sequences [22]. Human centromeres consist largely of repetitive short sequences (a-satellite DNA sequences) that are tightly packed into centromeric heterochromatin. The condensed structure of heterochromatin has been envisaged to present barriers toCentromeric Instability after Replication StressDNA replication. The problematic progression of replication fork in centromeric or pericentromeric regions may generate DNA lesions under replication stress [23]. If these lesions are not promptly repaired, they can lead to centromeric or pericentromeric chromosome aberrations. High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) such as HPV16 and HPV18 are strongly associated with uterine cervical cancer, a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide [24]. Infection with high-risk types of HPV may also play a role in other human cancers including esophageal cancer [25]. The viral oncogenes E6 and E7 encoded by high-risk HPV inactivate p53 and Rb proteins, respectively, by accelerating proteolytic degradation of the proteins [26]. Both p53 and Rb are master tumor suppressors in human cells. In epithelial cells, high-risk HPV E6 can also activate telomerase [27], which facilitates cellular immortalization, one of the hallmarks of cancer [1]. But in some cell lines, the telomerase activation by HPV E6 may not be efficient enough, so that cells undergoing immortalization may experience a period of crisis and exhibit Homatropine methobromide web telomere shortening-mediated telomere dysfunction before telomerase is further activated after crisis [28?0]. Moreover, it has been shown that the expression of HPV16 E6E7 can induce DNA damage and structural chromosome instability independent of telomere dysfunction [31]. In the present study, we found nonrandom structural chromosome instability in immortalized human epithelial cells co-expressing HPV16 E6E7 and hTERT, a catalytic subunit of telomerase. These cells preferentially exhibited pericentromeric instability, characterized by persistent occurrence of de novo pericentromeric or centromeric rearrangements, breaks, deletions or iso-chromosomes. In addition, we observed that treatment with aphidicolin, a classical drug causing replication stress, induced chromatid breaks at classical chromosome fragile sites as well as in pericentromeric regions in HPV16 E6E7-expressing cells. In the process of studying the long-term effect of aphidicolin-induced replication stress, we discovered, for the first time, that successive generations of HPV16 E6E7-expressing cells presented elevated proportions of centromeric or pericentromeric aberrations, but not the aberrations occurring at classical chromosome fragile sites, after release from aphidicolin treatment. These results suggest that pericentromeric regions are refractory to prompt repair after replication stress-induced breakage in HPV16 E6E7-expressing cells.novo chromosomal or chromatid breaks. This is because all intact/ normal human chrom.To cause genomic instability particularly at chromosome loci that are intrinsically difficult to replicate because of the complexity of secondary structures or difficulty in unwinding during DNA replication [3,18,19]. The term “chromosomal fragile sites” is designated to describe the recurrent loci that preferentially exhibit chromatid gaps and breaks on metaphase chromosomes under partial inhibition of DNA synthesis [20]. The list of such loci is growing and now includes classical “chromosomal fragile sites” [20], telomeres [21], and repetitive sequences [22]. Human centromeres consist largely of repetitive short sequences (a-satellite DNA sequences) that are tightly packed into centromeric heterochromatin. The condensed structure of heterochromatin has been envisaged to present barriers toCentromeric Instability after Replication StressDNA replication. The problematic progression of replication fork in centromeric or pericentromeric regions may generate DNA lesions under replication stress [23]. If these lesions are not promptly repaired, they can lead to centromeric or pericentromeric chromosome aberrations. High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) such as HPV16 and HPV18 are strongly associated with uterine cervical cancer, a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide [24]. Infection with high-risk types of HPV may also play a role in other human cancers including esophageal cancer [25]. The viral oncogenes E6 and E7 encoded by high-risk HPV inactivate p53 and Rb proteins, respectively, by accelerating proteolytic degradation of the proteins [26]. Both p53 and Rb are master tumor suppressors in human cells. In epithelial cells, high-risk HPV E6 can also activate telomerase [27], which facilitates cellular immortalization, one of the hallmarks of cancer [1]. But in some cell lines, the telomerase activation by HPV E6 may not be efficient enough, so that cells undergoing immortalization may experience a period of crisis and exhibit telomere shortening-mediated telomere dysfunction before telomerase is further activated after crisis [28?0]. Moreover, it has been shown that the expression of HPV16 E6E7 can induce DNA damage and structural chromosome instability independent of telomere dysfunction [31]. In the present study, we found nonrandom structural chromosome instability in immortalized human epithelial cells co-expressing HPV16 E6E7 and hTERT, a catalytic subunit of telomerase. These cells preferentially exhibited pericentromeric instability, characterized by persistent occurrence of de novo pericentromeric or centromeric rearrangements, breaks, deletions or iso-chromosomes. In addition, we observed that treatment with aphidicolin, a classical drug causing replication stress, induced chromatid breaks at classical chromosome fragile sites as well as in pericentromeric regions in HPV16 E6E7-expressing cells. In the process of studying the long-term effect of aphidicolin-induced replication stress, we discovered, for the first time, that successive generations of HPV16 E6E7-expressing cells presented elevated proportions of centromeric or pericentromeric aberrations, but not the aberrations occurring at classical chromosome fragile sites, after release from aphidicolin treatment. These results suggest that pericentromeric regions are refractory to prompt repair after replication stress-induced breakage in HPV16 E6E7-expressing cells.novo chromosomal or chromatid breaks. This is because all intact/ normal human chrom.