1A, UBC, HSPA1A, PRDX2, RPS6KA2, ETS2, NPTXR, ATG16L1, IL6, DNAJB6, DLC1, HSP90AA1, TXNRD1, TSC2, ATG9A, ULK1, FPS-ZM1 site HIST1H4L, TNRC6C, EP400, RAE1, TNRC6B, CEBPB, TFDP1, EGLN2, E2F1, PHC2, MAPK14, ATG3, PRKAG2, SUZ12P, CBX4, HIST2H4B, ACD, CBX2, RAD50, AKT1S1, MAPKAPK2, RPTOR, ANAPC11, SOD1, ANAPC2, APC2, HIST3H3, NUP62, WDR45, EHMT1, TXNRD2, GSR, CHMP6, KDM6B, CREBBP, TCEB2, PRKAA1, NUP210, GML, HSPA12B, DYNLL2. 46 GSN, AKT1, PSMC5, FADD, PSMB5, TICAM1, G6PC, RIPK1, SFN, PSMD1, YWHAG, DIABLO, PRKCQ, CDK5RAP2, KPNB1, PSMD11, NECAB3. TRADD, PSMB9, AKT3, OCLN, DAPK3, PSMD2, UNC5A, UBC, APC2, ADD1, TJP2, PLEC, TNFRSF10D, DLC1, EPPK1, DFFB, PSME3, PSMB10, PSME2, MNA, PSMC4, TFDP1, STK24, CASP7, E2F1, LMNA, TRAF2, BMF. GYS1, ENO2, PHKG2, PPP1R3C, PKM2, HK2. FBP2, PGAM2, GLG1, ALDOA, GYS2, GYG2, PFKP, HK3, PC, HK1, SLC25A1, PFKL, GAPDHS, UBC, PPP2R5D, PFKFB3, MDH2, GCK, SLC25A10, SLC25A11, PGM3, PYGM.ApoptosisGlucose MetabolismThe hypermethylated genes are shown in bold letters. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157866.tThen we asked if the changes in methylation and gene expression of the selected genes vary during course of time. Our data indicate that after 24 h and 48 h resveratrol Relugolix chemical information treatment 5 out of 8 oncogenes studied (i.e., AURKA, UBASH3B, MOB1, GPR110, and SLC 14A1) showed a high methylation and low mRNA levels (Fig 8). A similar but inverse behavior was observed for PEG10 gene that showed a low methylation level and high mRNA expression level after 24 h and 48 h resveratrol treatment. However, other genes such as HK2 and GREB1L showed intricate methylation/expression patterns after both times of resveratrol treatment suggesting that additional mechanisms are involved in the regulation of gene expression (Fig 8).DiscussionHere we provide novel epigenetic data which highlight the relevance of resveratrol on chemoprevention of breast cancer. Breast cancer accounts for 522,000 deaths and was the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women, with 1.7 million cases worldwide in 2012 [25]. Unfortunately tumors frequently recur in patients after first-line treatment; thus alternative therapeutic approaches are needed to overcome increasing drug resistance and improve patient’s survival. The identification of novel epigenetic modulators is an emerging strategy to discover novel nutraceutical drugs with potential chemotherapeutic applications in cancer. In the current study we performed a genome-wide DNA methylation analysis based on promoter DNA microarrays in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with dietary resveratrol which to our best knowledge has not been assessed before in breast cancer. Based upon our data, we showed that resveratrol a polyphenol found in grapes, berries, peanuts, red wine, and plants which exhibits potent and antitumor effects in various types of cancer [26], is a novel modulator of DNA methylation in breast cancer cells. Only few previous reports suggested that resveratrol may exert anti-cancer effects in breast cancer cells through epigenetic mechanisms. For instance, resveratrol inhibits the activity and expression of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) in breast cancer cells, which impairs the epigenetic silencing of the BRCA1 tumor suppressor by modulating acetylation of H3K9, and H4, association of mono-methylated-H3K9, DNMT1, and methyl binding domain protein-2 with the promoter of BRCA-1 gene [27]. On the other hand, resveratrol also exhibits epigenetic actions by targeting the chromatin modifier MTA1, histonePLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journa.1A, UBC, HSPA1A, PRDX2, RPS6KA2, ETS2, NPTXR, ATG16L1, IL6, DNAJB6, DLC1, HSP90AA1, TXNRD1, TSC2, ATG9A, ULK1, HIST1H4L, TNRC6C, EP400, RAE1, TNRC6B, CEBPB, TFDP1, EGLN2, E2F1, PHC2, MAPK14, ATG3, PRKAG2, SUZ12P, CBX4, HIST2H4B, ACD, CBX2, RAD50, AKT1S1, MAPKAPK2, RPTOR, ANAPC11, SOD1, ANAPC2, APC2, HIST3H3, NUP62, WDR45, EHMT1, TXNRD2, GSR, CHMP6, KDM6B, CREBBP, TCEB2, PRKAA1, NUP210, GML, HSPA12B, DYNLL2. 46 GSN, AKT1, PSMC5, FADD, PSMB5, TICAM1, G6PC, RIPK1, SFN, PSMD1, YWHAG, DIABLO, PRKCQ, CDK5RAP2, KPNB1, PSMD11, NECAB3. TRADD, PSMB9, AKT3, OCLN, DAPK3, PSMD2, UNC5A, UBC, APC2, ADD1, TJP2, PLEC, TNFRSF10D, DLC1, EPPK1, DFFB, PSME3, PSMB10, PSME2, MNA, PSMC4, TFDP1, STK24, CASP7, E2F1, LMNA, TRAF2, BMF. GYS1, ENO2, PHKG2, PPP1R3C, PKM2, HK2. FBP2, PGAM2, GLG1, ALDOA, GYS2, GYG2, PFKP, HK3, PC, HK1, SLC25A1, PFKL, GAPDHS, UBC, PPP2R5D, PFKFB3, MDH2, GCK, SLC25A10, SLC25A11, PGM3, PYGM.ApoptosisGlucose MetabolismThe hypermethylated genes are shown in bold letters. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157866.tThen we asked if the changes in methylation and gene expression of the selected genes vary during course of time. Our data indicate that after 24 h and 48 h resveratrol treatment 5 out of 8 oncogenes studied (i.e., AURKA, UBASH3B, MOB1, GPR110, and SLC 14A1) showed a high methylation and low mRNA levels (Fig 8). A similar but inverse behavior was observed for PEG10 gene that showed a low methylation level and high mRNA expression level after 24 h and 48 h resveratrol treatment. However, other genes such as HK2 and GREB1L showed intricate methylation/expression patterns after both times of resveratrol treatment suggesting that additional mechanisms are involved in the regulation of gene expression (Fig 8).DiscussionHere we provide novel epigenetic data which highlight the relevance of resveratrol on chemoprevention of breast cancer. Breast cancer accounts for 522,000 deaths and was the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women, with 1.7 million cases worldwide in 2012 [25]. Unfortunately tumors frequently recur in patients after first-line treatment; thus alternative therapeutic approaches are needed to overcome increasing drug resistance and improve patient’s survival. The identification of novel epigenetic modulators is an emerging strategy to discover novel nutraceutical drugs with potential chemotherapeutic applications in cancer. In the current study we performed a genome-wide DNA methylation analysis based on promoter DNA microarrays in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with dietary resveratrol which to our best knowledge has not been assessed before in breast cancer. Based upon our data, we showed that resveratrol a polyphenol found in grapes, berries, peanuts, red wine, and plants which exhibits potent and antitumor effects in various types of cancer [26], is a novel modulator of DNA methylation in breast cancer cells. Only few previous reports suggested that resveratrol may exert anti-cancer effects in breast cancer cells through epigenetic mechanisms. For instance, resveratrol inhibits the activity and expression of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) in breast cancer cells, which impairs the epigenetic silencing of the BRCA1 tumor suppressor by modulating acetylation of H3K9, and H4, association of mono-methylated-H3K9, DNMT1, and methyl binding domain protein-2 with the promoter of BRCA-1 gene [27]. On the other hand, resveratrol also exhibits epigenetic actions by targeting the chromatin modifier MTA1, histonePLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journa.
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